Exploring the Dynamics of Directory Government: Unpacking the Causes, Weaknesses, and Achievements of a Complex System: A Comprehensive Analysis of the Strengths and Shortcomings of Directory Governance, Examining the Underlying Factors, Challenges, and Notable Accomplishments that Shape its Efficiency and Effectiveness.

Introduction of the Directory government in Europe
The Directory government was a conservative middle class oriented 
government that ruled France from 1795-1799. Administration was in the 
hands of a committee of five members who were called Directors. Each 
Director was to rule for one year. The Directors were assisted by a council 
of five hundred composed of persons above the age of 30 years and the 
council of Elders, which comprised of persons of over40 years. These 
councils were responsible for making and amending the constitution.
Achievements of the directory government:
1. The Directory government ended the reign of terror and restored Law 
and order in France. Before the directory government, France was in 
anarchy where one had to be a killer in order not to be killed. However, the 
directory government abolished the committees of public safety, 
revolutionary tribunals and general security which were instruments of the
reign of terror. The government also released political suspects and 
prisoners most of whom were unfairly imprisoned during the reign of terror. 
These, restored peace, stability, the rule of Law and order.
2. Politically, The Directory government should be applauded for 
reconciling various factions that was very antagonistic during the reign of 
terror. It released political prisoners and allowed émigrés who had fled 
political persecution to unconditionally return to France. They were 
integrated to serve in a new unitary government on the principle of 
reconciliation. The Girondins and moderate Jacobins were scattered in 
different government departments to neutralize their perceived threats 
against the government. This explains why there was relative political 
stability, peace and order contrary to the pre 1789 era in France.
3. The influence and threats of the royalists against the government was 
checked and minimized by the Directory government. It was decreed that 
2/3 of the posts in the government were to be held by former members of 
the convention government. This made the government to be dominated 
by revolutionary persons, which undermined the royalist dominance and 
negative influence that could have destabilized the government. Although 
the principle of equality was ignored, such a decree nevertheless helped 
to restore peace and stability in France, hence an achievement.
4. The Directory government initiated a number of reforms that were 
accomplished by Napoleon Bonaparte. For instance, the codification of 
the French laws, centralization of administration, public works e.g. roads 
and railways, educational, industrial and agricultural reforms. Some of these 
reforms were perfected by Napoleon Bonaparte, which qualified him to be 
great.
5. The Directory government is credited for restoring democratic system of 
government in a country that had experienced the worst dictatorship 
during the reign of terror. It was a liberal government that was headed by 
a committee of five directors who were men of high reputation. The 
directors were regularly replaced annually to avoid dictatorship and 
struggle for power. The government also upheld the principle of 
parliamentary democracy. The new constitution of 1795 created the 
council of five hundred and elders who were responsible for making and 
amending the constitution. France remained a republican government 
and elections were held in 1797 and 1798 although by only those who could 
afford the tax qualification to vote. This preserved some fundamental rights 
such as the right to vote and participation in government.
6. Besides, the Directory government restored constitutional rule in France. 
Before 1795, France was under the most brutal and single party dictatorship 
of Robespierre. But the Directory government amended the 1791constitution in 1795. This safeguarded people's freedom and rights 
throughout the 4 years of the Directory government. It should be noted that 
the constitution disenfranchised the majority Frenchmen due to tax 
qualification in order to check violence especially by the low income 
earners i.e. the Paris mob. They were prohibited from attending 
parliamentary sessions. Although this was undemocratic, it nevertheless left. 
French destiny in the hands of propertied Frenchmen who had a high 
degree of political acumen and strong desire for peace as a means of 
protecting their property.
7. The government improved the military capacity of France, ft re-
organized, retrained and re-
Equipped the French army to a very high level of military efficiency. The 
National Guard was transformed into a strong force led by men of rare 
talents like Director Carnot and Napoleon Bonaparte. The army was used 
to maintain Law and order bring wealth and military glory from a board.
However, it should be noted that the Directory government lost control over 
the army and that is why Napoleon used the army to take over power 
in1799.
8. The Directory government defeated the first coalition of Britain, Prussia, 
and Holland, Austria etc. that was formed against France in 1793, the aim 
of the coalition was to suppress the revolution and restore Louis xvi to his 
power. But the directory government launched an aggressive campaign 
and defeated the coalition powers in 1795 with the exception of Britain. This 
kept the revolution intact and restored people's confidence in the 
government.
9. Internal uprisings and plots against the government were suppressed by 
the army. For instance, the royalist uprising of1795 was brutally suppressed 
by the young "one meal a day artillery officer"; Napoleon. The Babeuf plot 
to assassinate the directors, topple the government and establish a socialist 
government in France was foiled in 1797. Babeuf and his followers were 
arrested, charged and guillotined/murdered. This destroyed internal 
opposition and made potential enemies to keep aloof.
10. In its foreign policy, the directory government was very successful in the 
Italian campaign of1796 against Austria. Austria had been a headache to 
the revolutionary government since 1792. In 1796, Napoleon commanded 
French troops, defeated Austria and forced her to sign the Compofomio 
treaty of.1797. By this treaty, Austria surrendered Belgium, Rhrevolutionary
Northern Italian states to France. These states paid annual tributes to 
France. For instance, the Duke of Modena paid 10,000 Francs annually to 
France. Napoleon also looted Italian works of art and used them to beautify
the French museums. All these earned France wealth, military glory and led 
to the expansion of French territory. On top of those, the government 
liberated Italians and Germans from the oppressive Austrian rule.
The Weaknesses and Failures of the Directory Governmentpresses this 
that; The Directory government was the more incompetent and most 
corrupt government ever setup in France. Hay expresses the same 
sentiments that; the history of the four years of the directory was troubled; 
uncertain and ended in its violent overthrow. It should be noted that the 
Directory government contributed to its own downfall in 1799. Its 
weaknesses were exploited by Napoleon I to rally support and stage the 
coup of 1799leadingto the end of the road for the Directory government.
1. The Directory government was messed up by corruption, embezzlement 
of public funds and inefficient administration. It over printed the assignats 
(currency) and it lost its value to the lowest level. All these led to industrial 
breakdown, unemployment, inflation, famine and starvation. This caused 
public outcry for a liberator which was utilized by Napoleon to rise to power.
2. The government went against democratic rights by making tax 
qualification the criteria for one to vote or be voted in an election. For 
example, those who were voted in the upper chamber of parliament had 
to pay 40,000 Francs. It disenfranchised the majority of poor Frenchmen 
most especially the peasants. This was a violation of the French 
revolutionary principles of liberty, equality, fraternity and nationalism. In 
short, it was a return to the pre 1789 conservative ancient system which the 
Frenchmen had destroyed through the 1789 revolution.
3. The government lacked confidence in itself. It over relied on Napoleon 
in suppressing internal revolts and fighting foreign wars. For example, the 
royalist uprising of 1795, Italian and Egyptian campaigns of 1796 and 1798 
respectively. These increased Napoleon's popularity and ambitions which 
made him to stage the coup of1799.
4. The Directory government failed to bring reconciliation between the 
Catholic Church and the government of France. It encouraged the worship 

of reason and altered the calendar to contain names of revolutionary

5. The Directory government is credited for restoring democratic system of 

government in a country that had experienced the worst dictatorship 

during the reign of terror. It was a liberal government that was headed by 

a committee of five directors who were men of high reputation. The 

directors were regularly replaced annually to avoid dictatorship and 

struggle for power. The government also upheld the principle of 

parliamentary democracy. The new constitution of 1795 created the 

council of five hundred and elders who were responsible for making and 

amending the constitution. France remained a republican government 

and elections were held in 1797 and 1798 although by only those who could 

afford the tax qualification to vote. This preserved some fundamental rights 

such as the right to vote and participation in government.

6. Besides, the Directory government restored constitutional rule in France. 

Before 1795, France was under the most brutal and single party dictatorship 

of Robespierre. But the Directory government amended the 1791constitution in 1795. This safeguarded people's freedom and rights 

throughout the 4 years of the Directory government. It should be noted that 

the constitution disenfranchised the majority Frenchmen due to tax 

qualification in order to check violence especially by the low income 

earners i.e. the Paris mob. They were prohibited from attending 

parliamentary sessions. Although this was undemocratic, it nevertheless left. 

French destiny in the hands of propertied Frenchmen who had a high 

degree of political acumen and strong desire for peace as a means of 

protecting their property.

7. The government improved the military capacity of France, ft re-

organized, retrained and re-

Equipped the French army to a very high level of military efficiency. The 

National Guard was transformed into a strong force led by men of rare 

talents like Director Carnot and Napoleon Bonaparte. The army was used 

to maintain Law and order bring wealth and military glory from a board.

However, it should be noted that the Directory government lost control over 

the army and that is why Napoleon used the army to take over power 

in1799.

8. The Directory government defeated the first coalition of Britain, Prussia, 

and Holland, Austria etc. that was formed against France in 1793, the aim 

of the coalition was to suppress the revolution and restore Louis xvi to his 

power. But the directory government launched an aggressive campaign 

and defeated the coalition powers in 1795 with the exception of Britain. This 

kept the revolution intact and restored people's confidence in the 

government.

9. Internal uprisings and plots against the government were suppressed by 

the army. For instance, the royalist uprising of1795 was brutally suppressed 

by the young "one meal a day artillery officer"; Napoleon. The Babeuf plot 

to assassinate the directors, topple the government and establish a socialist 

government in France was foiled in 1797. Babeuf and his followers were 

arrested, charged and guillotined/murdered. This destroyed internal 

opposition and made potential enemies to keep aloof.

10. In its foreign policy, the directory government was very successful in the 

Italian campaign of1796 against Austria. Austria had been a headache to 

the revolutionary government since 1792. In 1796, Napoleon commanded 

French troops, defeated Austria and forced her to sign the Compofomio 

treaty of.1797. By this treaty, Austria surrendered Belgium, Rhine lands andNorthern Italian states to France. These states paid annual tributes to 

France. For instance, the Duke of Modena paid 10,000 Francs annually to 

France. Napoleon also looted Italian works of art and used them to beautify

the French museums. All these earned France wealth, military glory and led 

to the expansion of French territory. On top of those, the government 

liberated Italians and Germans from the oppressive Austrian rule.

The Weaknesses and Failures of the Directory Government

The Directory government had fundamental weaknesses that made some 

historians to grossly underestimate its achievements. Madelin expresses this 

that; The Directory government was the more incompetent and most 

corrupt government ever setup in France. Hay expresses the same 

sentiments that; the history of the four years of the directory was troubled; 

uncertain and ended in its violent overthrow. It should be noted that the 

Directory government contributed to its own downfall in 1799. Its 

weaknesses were exploited by Napoleon I to rally support and stage the 

coup of 1799leadingto the end of the road for the Directory government.

1. The Directory government was messed up by corruption, embezzlement 

of public funds and inefficient administration. It over printed the assignats 

(currency) and it lost its value to the lowest level. All these led to industrial 

breakdown, unemployment, inflation, famine and starvation. This caused 

public outcry for a liberator which was utilized by Napoleon to rise to power.

2. The government went against democratic rights by making tax 

qualification the criteria for one to vote or be voted in an election. For 

example, those who were voted in the upper chamber of parliament had 

to pay 40,000 Francs. It disenfranchised the majority of poor Frenchmen 

most especially the peasants. This was a violation of the French 

revolutionary principles of liberty, equality, fraternity and nationalism. In 

short, it was a return to the pre 1789 conservative ancient system which the 

Frenchmen had destroyed through the 1789 revolution.

3. The government lacked confidence in itself. It over relied on Napoleon 

in suppressing internal revolts and fighting foreign wars. For example, the 

royalist uprising of 1795, Italian and Egyptian campaigns of 1796 and 1798 

respectively. These increased Napoleon's popularity and ambitions which 

made him to stage the coup of1799.

4. The Directory government failed to bring reconciliation between the 

Catholic Church and the government of France. It encouraged the worship 

of reason and altered the calendar to contain names of revolutionaryevents and leaders other than saints and the birth of Christ. The worship of 

reason (philanthrophy) that was led by Herbert was anti-Christian and 

dogmatic. It was therefore very unpopular to the majority of the Frenchmen 

most of whom were staunch Catholics. This provoked more rebellions in the 

catholic dominated western provinces of Brittany and Lavandee districts. 

The government failed to pacify these areas and they remained a source 

of political/ instability to the government.

5. The Directory government was disorganized and weakened from its 

structure and hierarchy. 'Disharmony existed between the council of 500 

and the council of elders. There was power struggle within the directors. The 

government also failed to reconcile with the parliament that was 

dominated by the Jacobins supporters. This explains why the parliament 

refused to approve newly elected members of parliament in 1797 and 

rejected several government programs This situation gave rise to political 

intrigues which destroyed the government. For Instance, Abbey Sieyyes 

and Duccas disagreed with other directors and used Napoleon to stage 

the coup of1799.

6. The Directory government is blamed for manipulating and rigging 

elections in France. The government used the army to terrorize people to 

vote for its candidates and rig the elections of •" 1797, 1798 and 1799. It 

nullified the election results of 1797 simply because the royalists and 

moderates had won most of the seats in parliament against state 

candidates. This explains why Carnot, the chairman of elections was 

deposed. In a nut shell, this was militarization of elections and an attack on 

the democratic rights of the Frenchmen.

7. Directory government worsened economic crisis in France when it 

scrapped the law of maximum price. The law was initiated by Robespierre 

to protect consumers against exploitation by hoarders of essential 

commodities in times, of crisis. The law was abolished and France became 

a free market economy managed by the forces of demand and supply. 

This was used by traders and Industrialists to hike prices of commodities. 

Consequently, it led to Inflation, poverty, famine and starvation that made 

life of ordinary French men very miserable

8. The amnesty to the émigrés and release of political prisoners did not 

amount to total reconciliation. Diehard revolutionaries protested their 

return as a threat to the progress of the revolution. This was because they 

were hardcore conservative persons who were suspected to return with a 

hidden agenda to advocate for the restoration of the pre 1789 privileges

and properties such as Land. Indeed when they returned, many of them 

joined the opposition and undermined government programs through their 

representatives in parliament.

9. The foreign policy of the Directory government over the Egyptian 

campaign was a failure.

Napoleon had commanded 38,000 soldiers to conquer Egypt and force 

the British out. Although

Napoleon successfully conquered the Island of Malta from the British and 

defeated the Mameluks (Egyptian rulers) at the battle of pyramids, he was 

finally defeated by Nelson. He withdrew to France in two tiny boats with a

few escorts leaving his soldiers in Egypt. Thus, the Egyptian campaign was 

a fiasco.

10. Lastly, the Directory government was too weak and incapable of 

consolidating the territorial glory and gains which Napoleon I had achieved 

through the Italian campaign of 1796-97. The second coalition of 1798 was 

formed against France, defeated her and Austria regained all the 

Compofomio- treaty territories that she had lost to France in the 1796 Italian 

campaign. Indeed by 1799, France was driven out of Switzerland, Germany 

and Italian states. Napoleon questioned the military effectiveness of the 

government in the following words;

I go and I leave you in peace, I come back, I find war, I left you victorious 

but found you defeated! What have you done for the French society?

Much as Napoleon reorganized the French troops and defeated the 

second coalition in 1802, the war left France isolated from the rest of Europe 

who fought her in a series of coalitions until 1815 when Napoleon was finally 

defeated. France was only reconciled to the rest of Europe in 1818 when 

she was admitted to the congress system.

Reasons For the Collapse Of The Ancient Regime

i) The outbreak of the French revolution of 1789 was a landmark in the 

collapse of the ancient regime. The Ancient regime/Bourbon monarchy 

failed to address the political, economic and social problems of the French

men that dragged them to revolt by 1789. After the outbreak of the 

revolution, the revolutionaries established the national assembly that was 

monopolized by diehard revolutionary personalities who enacted policies 

that undermined the existence of the monarchy. They hijacked the Kings 

powers and left him as a "figure head" in French political affairs. Besides,

revolutionary principles of liberty, equality and fraternity antagonized the 

political, social and economic structures of the ancient regime/monarchy

and made its collapse inevitable.

ii) Revolutionary events in the aftermath of the revolution speeded up the 

collapse of the Ancient regime/Bourbon monarchy. The declaration of the 

rights of man and citizens (Aug 1789) unveiled fundamental human rights 

and freedoms like freedom of press, association, worship, ownership of 

property, participation in government and equality of all by nature. It was 

a one sided declaration that dealt with the rights of citizens and ignored 

people's duties to the monarchy. Thereafter, the French revolutionaries 

struggled for their rights at the expense of their duties that could have 

supported the monarchy. The document destroyed unfair political system, 

class system, feudalism and serfdom that had sustained the ancient 

regime/monarchy. It also gave rise to revolutionary ideas of liberty, equality 

and fraternity that were incompatible to the existence of the monarchy, 

^he declaration therefore consolidated the ideas of republicanism and 

influenced the revolutionaries to substitute the monarchy with a republican 

government by 1793.

iii) The civil constitution of the clergy, July 1790 was yet another revolutionary 

event that contributed to the collapse of the ancient regime/ Bourbon 

monarchy. It destroyed the Catholic church influence on state affairs, 

religious intolerance and privileges of the Catholic Church and Clergies in 

France. The upper clergy and the Pope influenced King Louis xvi to veto it, 

which increased the determination of hardcore revolutionaries to do away 

with the monarchy/ ancient regime. Apart from uprooting the Catholic 

Church influence, the document brought to an end church alliance with 

the ancient regime/Bourbon monarchy. This led to the collapse of the 

monarchy because the Catholic Church was its strongest base and 

greatest supporter.

iv) The calling of the estates general meeting of 5th may 1789 also 

propelled the collapse of the ancient regime/ Bourbon monarchy. The 

delegates were summoned by King Louis xvi to find solutions to pending 

problems most especially financial crisis in France. The failure of King Louis 

xvi to handle the crisis over seating arrangement forced the third estate 

delegates to declare themselves the national assembly. This sparked off the 

1789 revolution, which came with events that hastened the collapse of the 

monarchy. It was thus the beginning of the-revolutionary government that 

formally ended the reign of the regime/monarchy and instituted arepublican government by 1793.

v) The rise of the national assembly also influenced the collapse of the 

ancient regime/Bourbon monarchy. When the King failed to settle the 

disagreement over the seating arrangement, the third estate delegates 

defied him and converted themselves into the national assembly on 17th 

June 1789. This undermined the powers of the ancient regime/ monarchy 

as the third estate- used the national assembly to make laws that trimmed 

the powers of the monarchy and the King in French affairs. The assembly 

kept the third estate delegates united against the monarchy as they made 

laws on behalf of all the Frenchmen.

vi) The March of women to Versailles was also responsible for the collapse 

of the ancient regime/Bourbon monarchy by 1793. On 5th Get 1789, about 

6500 women including men dressed in women's clothes marched from Paris 

to Versailles to petition King Louis xvi to accept reforms and settle socio-

economic problems of famine, unemployment inflation etc. The King 

yielded to their demands and was brought back to Paris with, his entire 

family. However when they reached Paris, they were put under house arrest 

in the Tuillaries palace as prisoners. This made it easier to transfer the 

national assembly from Versailles 'that was a stronghold of the ancient 

regime/ Bourbon monarchy to Paris, which was a revolutionary centre 

controlled by the mob. It became a big setback to the powers of the 

regime/monarchy as it lost control of the destiny of France.

vii) The destruction/fall of Bastilles was very crucial in the collapse of the 

ancient regime/ Bourbon monarchy. On 14th July 1789, the Paris mob under 

the leadership of Desmoulins destroyed the Bastilles that were a symbol of 

despotism where victims of lettress-de-cachet were imprisoned. Prisoners 

most of whom diehard revolutionaries were released. The released prisoners 

revenged by joining the Paris mob to cause more chaos that contributed 

to the death of Louis xvi and the downfall of the Bourbon monarchy. The 

fall of Bastilles also implied the end of dictatorship, lettress-de-cachet and 

centralization of power that had been part and parcel of the monarchy. It 

forced the nobles and clergy into exile thereby narrowing the support of 

the monarchy while increasing the determination of the third estate to 

uproot it from power. Besides, the destruction of the Bastilles was preceded 

by change of the national flag from the white flag of the Bourbons to the 

tri-colour flag of the revolutionaries and dissolution of the royal guard that 

was replaced by the National Guard. This denied the ancient 

regime/monarchy of its symbol and protection hence accelerating it,s collapse

viii) The promulgation of the first French constitution also contributed to the 

collapse of the ancient regime/Bourbon monarchy. On 5th Sept 1791, the 

constituent assembly enacted the first constitution in the history of France. 

It confirmed people's rights in the declaration of the rights of man and 

citizens ignoring people's duties that was very important in strengthening 

the monarchy. Above all, the constitution drastically reduced the 

traditional powers of the monarchy and the King. It established a new 

administrative system where the King's powers were decentralized to be 

exercised by junior officers. This left King Louis xvi and the Bourbon 

monarchy with very limited power that made the collapse of the ancient 

regime inevitable by 1793.

ix) The weaknesses of King Louis xvi contributed to the collapse of the 

ancient regime in a number of ways. In the first place, Louis' failure to settle 

the political, social and economic problems in France led to the outbreak 

of the French revolution that undermined the survival of the ancient regime.

b) It was Louis who blundered by calling the estates general meeting and 

failed to settle the issue of the sitting arrangement that graduated into the 

revolution. Louis' personal weakness could not enable him to hijack the 

revolution on its eve. This is why the revolutionaries took control of events 

and destroyed the monarchy by 1793.

c) Louis xvi's insensitivity to reforms made the revolutionaries to take a 

radical and violent step of destroying the ancient regime and executing 

him by 1793. The French revolutionaries of 1789 were merely demanding for 

reforms but Louis xvi used his veto powers to block the proposed reforms. 

For instance, he refused to sign important documents like the declaration 

of the rights of man and citizens, the civil constitution of the clergy and the 

general amnesty to the émigrés. These made Louis xvi and the ancient 

regime an obstacle to the French revolution and that is why they were 

destroyed by 1793.

d) Louis xvi's treasonable acts against the French revolutionaries led to the 

downfall of the monarchy / ancient regime and his own death by 1793. His 

attempt to suppress the revolution using foreign troops, calling the royal 

session and closing the third class delegates out of the assembly hall forced 

the revolutionaries to destroy the monarchy and replace it with a 

republican government. This is because the revolutionaries saw Louis and 

the ancient regime as a threat to the survival of the revolution and hencedecided to eliminate them for the sake of the revolution.

e) Louis Xvi's aborted flight to Varennes was a blunder that led to the 

collapse of the ancient regime.

This was a secret move where Louis intended to flee to Austria in order to 

seek foreign assistance, link up with the émigrés and suppress the 

revolution. However, he was arrested and imprisoned as an enemy of the 

revolution. Investigators found secret documents in his office drawer and 

house that linked him to the émigrés and other hostile foreign states like 

Austria. Consequently, he was charged with treason and guillotined as a 

closing chapter to the ancient regime.

x) The negative role/character of Queen Marie Antoinette was instrumental 

in the disintegration of the ancient regime. Marie Antoinette was arrogant, 

cantankerous and unsympathetic to the problems of the Frenchmen. She 

gave poor and unfortunate advice to Louis xvi which made him to pursue 

negative policies against the Frenchmen. For instance, she advised the king 

to dismiss Turgot and Necker and reject all reforms proposed by the 

national assembly. This forced the revolutionaries to attack the Bastilles and 

destroy the ancient regime.

xi) The untimely death of Mirabeau was also responsible for the collapse of 

the ancient regime. Mira beau was the chairman of the national assembly 

and a counselor to Louis xvi. Unfortunately, he died in 1791 and this gave 

rise to blood thirsty and power hungry men like Danton, Marat and 

Robespierre whose role led to the collapse of the ancient regime. Mira 

beau foretold the destruction of the monarchy when he said on his death 

bed that; I carry with me the last rags of the monarchy. It's therefore logical 

to say that the death of Mira beau robbed France of a political conciliator 

who could have saved the ancient regime and Louis xvi from destruction 

and death respectively.

xii) The role of political parties / clubs such as the Girondins, Jacobins, 

Cordilliers etc weakened the monarchy and led to its demise / downfall by 

1793. These parties intensified violence and instability that undermined 

people's confidence in the monarchy. The Jacobins terrorized and 

assassinated all those who were still sympathetic to the ancient regime and 

monarchy. They also exposed and exaggerated the weaknesses of the 

ancient regime that undermined its existence by 1793.

xiii) The rise and role of revolutionary extremists was of paramount 

importance in the collapse of the ancient regime/Bourbon monarchy. 

Marat used his revolutionary newspaper, L’ Ami du people to decampaign 

the Bourbon monarchy and incite the masses to overthrow it. He was asupporter of the Paris mob and the master planner of the September 

massacre where over 1,000 imprisoned monarchical supporters were 

murdered in cold blood. Robespierre, Danton and Marat perpetuated 

violence and killing of supporters of the monarchy including King Louis xvi 

and Queen Marie Antoinette. They were blood thirsty radical republicans 

who brought the ancient regime/Bourbon monarchy to an end and 

established a republican government in France by 1793.

xiv) Persistent financial crisis affected the performance of the ancient 

regime/Bourbon monarchy and contributed to its downfall. Financial 

bankruptcy forced Louis xvi to call the estates general meeting of 5th May 

1789 that triggered off 'the-revolution, which led to the collapse of the 

ancient regime/Bourbon monarchy. The outbreak of the revolution did not 

give the King and his Ministers time to consult the members of parliament

on the solutions to financial crisis. Consequently, the crisis persisted and 

worsened the problems of inflation, unemployment, poverty, famine and 

starvation. It eroded the little confidence that some Frenchmen still had in 

the monarchy and consolidated the spirit of republicanism. This was used 

by radical republicans like Robespierre to destroy the monarchy and 

institute a republican government in France by 1793.

xv) The establishment of Convention government and a republic sealed the 

fate of the ancient regime/Bourbon monarchy in France. On Sept 1792, the 

national assembly suspended King Louis xvi but feared to pass a final 

judgment on him and the monarchy. A resolution was passed that a new 

government that would be called the convention government should be 

formed (through elections) to determine the fate of the monarchy and the 

King. In the aftermath of its formation, the Convention government 

deposed King Louis xvi and declared France a republic on 22nd Sept 1792. 

This became the end of the road for the ancient regime/Bourbon 

monarchy in France.

xvi) The abolition of Feudalism influenced the collapse of the ancient 

regime/Bourbon monarchy. On 4thAug 1789, the national assembly 

nullified feudalism and scrapped the oppressive ancient system of taxation 

in France. It also guaranteed equality in accessing public offices and 

services. These influenced some clergy and nobles to denounce their 

privileges and join the third estate in a spirit of brotherhood. This undermined 

the basis of survival for the monarchy and caused its collapse by 1793.

xvii) The role of mobs and mob injustice cannot be underrated in the 

collapse of the ancient regime. During the reign of terror, there was totalbreakdown of law and order which made the mob to take control of 

events in France. This was manipulated by ambitious and opportunistic 

politicians like Robespierre to destroy the ancient regime and achieve their 

hidden political ambitions.

xviii) The hostility of European monarchs towards the French revolution 

forced the revolutionaries to destroy the ancient regime and replace it with 

a republican government. The Pilnitz declaration and the Brunswick 

manifesto where Prussia and Austria threatened (and even invaded) 

France forced the revolutionaries to "do away" with the ancient regime 

before it could be saved.

xix) The effects of American war of independence and the failure of the 

army to support the ancient regime also led to its collapse. A part from 

contributing to financial crisis, the war politicized the

French soldiers negatively against the monarchy. This made it very easy for 

power hungry men like Robespierre, Danton and Marat to use the 

politicized soldiers in bringing about the downfall of the ancient regime.

xx) The better political, social and economic conditions in England partly 

influenced the Frenchmen to cause the collapse of the ancient regime. 

England had a constitutional monarchy with a functional parliament, 

independent judiciary, a modernized agriculture and industries. Besides, 

the socio economic conditions of the English were better than those of the 

Frenchmen. This influenced radical Frenchmen to replace the monarchy 

with a republic that was to resemble the form of government in England.

xxi) The role of political philosophers, encyclopaedists and physiocrats 

undermined the survival of the ancient regime beyond 1793. Their writings 

politicized the Frenchmen against the rule of Louis xvi and the Bourbon 

monarchy. They compared the conditions of the Frenchmen with those of 

the English and exposed the "rottenness" of the French monarchy. This 

biased the Frenchmen with negative attitudes against the monarchy and 

contributed to its collapse by 1793.

xxii) The growing threats of the émigrés also contributed to the collapse of 

the ancient regime. By 1792, they had mobilized themselves to a tune of 

20,000 men with a declared intention to suppress the revolution, restore 

their privileges and King Louis to his throne; They were supported by foreign 

powers and had internal collaborators who provided them with military 

secrets and strategies. King Louis xvi and the monarchy were key suspects

amongst internal collaborators. This biased the revolutionaries to eliminate 

them as a strategy to deal with the threats of the émigrés

xxiii) Conclude generally without taking a standpoint.

POSITIVE CHANGES AND ACHIEVEMENTS

The French revolution that started in 1789 brought fundamental social, 

political and economic changes in the history of France. The changes 

caused by the revolution were both positive and" negative. One should 

note that the classical/lasting changes brought by the revolution in France 

and Europe explain why historians have regarded the revolution as the 

most important event in the history of Europe during the 18th Century.

Destruction of social class system

The French revolution destroyed the discriminative social class system in 

France and declared equality for all by nature. Segregation in terms of 

birth, religion, sex and class against peasants and middleclass were brought 

to an end. The revolutionaries came up with the idea of equality and career 

open to talents where promotions and appointments to any position in the 

society were based on talents and abilities. This led to the rise of the 

middleclass who had better education to positions of responsibility as 

opposed to incompetent nobles and clergy who dominated such positions 

before the revolution. However, peasants remained spectators inspite of 

their massive participation in the revolution.

2 Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte

The French Revolution contributed to the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte 1 to 

power, without which he would have died a common man. It destroyed 

the segregative social class system and offered opportunity for talented 

peasant men who used to be discriminated like Napoleon Bonaparte to 

rise to power. Revolutionary changes and events like theT793 and 1795 

uprisings gave Napoleon opportunity to exploit his talents and maneuver 

his way to power by 1799.

3 Declaration of the rights of man and citizens

The French revolution led to the declaration of the rights of man and citizens .The constitutional Assembly/parliament in 1789 deliberated and came up with a document 

of on the rights of man and citizens. It granted political liberties like; freedom 

of speech, press, worship, association and ownership of property. Although 

these were abused especially during the reign of terror, they nevertheless 

became the foundation of people's rights and freedom.

4 Revolutionary ideas of equality, liberty and fraternity

The revolution gave birth to revolutionary ideas of equality, liberty and 

fraternity. These ideas were consolidated in France and spread to other 

states such as Italians and Germans. Such ideas promoted equality, 

freedom, democracy and good governance. They were also used by the 

by the revolutionaries to dominate other nations. Above all, such 

revolutionary ideas glorified France and made her a prestigious nation in 

Europe.

5 Destruction of the Bourbon monarchy

The Bourbon monarchy that had ruled France for over 400 years was 

brought to an end by the French revolution. The revolutionaries declared 

the monarchy abolished in 1792 and replaced it with a republican form of 

government. Henceforth, France adopted a republican government that 

was the first of its kind in the history of -Europe. Although the. Bourbon 

monarchy was restored by the great powers after the downfall of 

Napoleon in 1815; it could not survive beyond 1830 because the monarchy 

was already weakened due to changes caused by the revolution.

6 Political pluralism

France became a multiparty state as a result of the 1789 revolution. The 

freedom of association led to the rise of different political parties such as 

the Feuvillants, Girondins, Cordilliers and Jacobins that competed for 

power. These Parties kept the government under checks and balances by 

criticizing the unfair policies and programs. However, these parties became 

institutions that promoted the reign of terror as they embarked on violence 

to eliminate rival political groups. This made them to destroy themselves to 

the extent that none of them existed beyond 1795.

7 Parliamentary democracy

The French Revolution consolidated parliamentary democracy in France. 

The national assembly

(Parliament) that was called by King Louis VI in May 1789 was maintained 

by successive revolutionary governments. France had a functionalparliament where different parties were represented. For instance in 1792, 

the parliament had 120 Girondins, 50 Jacobins and 60 Independent 

members. Thus, the Frenchmen were able to participate in governing 

themselves through their elected representatives.

8 Constitutionalism

The French revolution introduced the rule of law in the history of France. 

Before 1789, France had no constitution to safeguard people's rights and 

freedom. However, in 1791 the parliament enacted a constitution that was 

amended in 1793 and 1795. The constitution clearly separated the powers 

of the executive, judiciary and legislature (Parliament). It reduced the King's 

excessive powers and guided the government in planning, policy making 

and implementation.

9 Land

The French revolution brought a lasting change on land ownership in 

France. Before the revolution, land was dominated by the clergy and 

nobles who exploited peasants through feudalism and serfdom. However, 

the revolutionary government came with reforms that revolutionized / 

changed the land tenure system in France. The revolution brought the idea 

of private ownership of land where everybody had the right to own land. 

This provided peasants with a chance to own land for the first time and 

brought an end to feudalism and serfdom in the history of France. The civil 

constitution of the clergy nationalized church Land, which was sold to 

peasants at a giveaway price. Land that formerly belonged to absentee 

land lords were nationalized inl790 and given to former tenants who were 

peasants.

10 The Catholic Church and the clergy

The revolution undermined the power and influence of the Catholic Church 

in France. Before the revolution, the Catholic Church was the most powerful 

and privileged institution in France. However, the revolutionary government 

through the civil constitution of the clergy destroyed it's power, privileges 

and influence. Church influence on state and education were stopped. 

Freedom of worship was granted and the catholic religion was no longer a 

state religion. Church privileges were terminated to the extent that Bishops 

and Priests were made civil servants on government payroll. The Pope's 

influence in French politics also ceased to exist. However, this later caused 

conflict between the church and state on one hand, the French 

government and the rest of the catholic states on the other hand.NB. The poor relationship between the church and the state in France was 

corrected by Napoleon I when he signed the concordat (an agreement) 

with the pope in 1801. Nevertheless, Napoleon I later worsened the poor 

relationship in 1808 when he imprisoned the pope for failure to implement 

the continental system.

11 Socio-Economic changes

The revolutionary government enforced some reforms in the social and 

economic structures of France. In trade, a uniform metric system of weights 

and measures was introduced to avoid exploitation. A minimum price for 

bread was also fixed and a new currency (assignats) was introduced to 

control inflation. In the field of industrialization and labour, polytechnic 

institutions to train skilled man power were established and the right to work 

and receive fair payment was guaranteed. The education system was 

liberalized and the church's influence on education was terminated. 

Agriculture was boosted by introduction of better farming and scientific 

methods. Taxation was reformed to include the privileged classes.

NB. Most of the above Socio -economic changes created were 

undermined during the reign of terror and the directory government. 

Achievement in the fields of agriculture and transport were not so much 

Inflation persisted during the reign of terror and the directory government 

worsened it by over printing the Assignats. Exploitation of peasants 

continued through over taxation, discrimination in employment and 

fraudulent weights and measures. However, reforms in the social and 

economic fields survived and became permanent benefits of the 

revolution after the reign of terror.

12 Formation of the National Guard

There was the formation of the National Guard that replaced the royal 

guard of the Bourbon monarchy. The National Guard was a local militia 

force/revolutionary army that was made up of volunteers whose role was 

to protect the achievements of the revolution. By the end of 1793, there 

were about 700,000 well trained and disciplined soldiers in the National 

Guard. They defeated the first coalition and exported revolutionary ideas 

to countries like Belgium, Italian and German states.

13 Creation of the revolutionary Tri-colour flag

The French revolutionaries created the tri-colour flag to replace the white 

flag of the Bourbons. The three colours in the flag represented the three 

revolutionary ideas of equality, liberty and fraternity. It was a symbol ofchanges that France went through from the ancient regime to the new 

revolutionary government

NEGATIVE CHANGES AND FAILURES

1 Loss of lives and destruction of property

There was massive loss of lives and destruction of property most especially 

during the reign of terror. There were heavy massacres of the nobles, 

clergies and their sympathizers by diehard revolutionaries key personalities 

like Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette, Danton, Marat and Robes Pierre; all lost their 

lives during the French revolution of 1789. Important places like Hotel De 

Ville, Bastiilles and Mansions of the nobles and clergy were demolished. 

Properties belonging to exiled nobles and clergy especially land were 

confiscated and sold cheaply to peasants.

2 The reign of terror and revival of despotism

The French revolution that initially started as a peaceful reform movement 

in 1789 resulted into the reign of terror from 1793-94. There was total 

breakdown of law and order, heavy massacres and extreme dictatorship 

especially under the leadership of Robespierre. These were made worst by 

internal resistance to revolutionary changes by the privileged class and 

foreign war.

3 Displacement and exile

The French revolution led to displacement and exile of dissatisfied nobles 

and clergy to countries such as Austria, Prussia and Russia. Persecution and 

confiscation of property forced the wealthy clergy and nobles to exile. This 

led to capital flight which had negative effects on the economic 

development of France.

4 General economic decline

The revolution led to a general decline on the level of economic activities. 

Progress in agriculture, trade, industries, transport and communication were 

hindered and seriously undermined especially during the reign of terror. 

These led to unemployment, inflation, poverty, famine and starvation. The 

women's march to Paris in demand for food arid the role of the mob during 

the revolution is a testimony of the desperate economic condition created by the revolution.

5 Conflict between the Catholic Church and the state

The revolution led to a serious conflict between the Catholic Church and 

the state. Before the revolution, the Catholic Church and the state were in 

a perfectly good relationship. However, the negative changes created by 

the revolutionary government against the Catholic Church created a 

serious rebellion by the clergy and fanatic Catholics. The scrapping of 

church privileges, appointment of the clergy by the government and 

nationalization of church land brought an end to the formally cordial/ good 

relations between the state and the church.

6 Loophole/weakness of the rights of man and citizens

The rights of man and citizens that was declared by the revolutionary 

government had some loopholes. It emphasized only the rights of man and 

ignored the duties of man towards the slate. It left the Frenchmen Ignorant

of their duties to the extent that some of them started evading taxation. 

Above all, it made the Frenchmen irresponsible and crazy under emotional 

excitement of freedom that led to the outbreak of the reign of terror.

7 Loophole of the constitution

The constitution also had some loopholes. In the first place, it disqualified 

majority Frenchmen from voting by making property qualification the basis 

of voting. Secondly, it still left Louis XVI with power to veto/reject the 

resolutions of the parliament, which he stubbornly used to block reforms 

proposed by the parliament. This made the Frenchmen to lose confidence 

in the constitution and resort to lawlessness that led to the reign of terror.

8 Diplomatic relations

The French revolution led to poor diplomatic relations between France and 

other European states. The changes caused by the revolution and the 

threats of the revolutionaries against their neighbours forced states like 

Austria, Russia, Prussia, Britain and Italian states to ally against France in 

1792. This caused war between revolutionary France, and, other powers in 

Europe. France therefore lost her citizens and resources in an attempt to 

preserve and export revolutionary ideas to her neighbours.

Effects of The French Revolution On Europe:

The French revolution started peacefully as an internal revolt but as it 

progressed, it drifted from a peaceful reform movement to a violent 

movement and ended up affecting Europe and America. The revolution 

came up with new principles that were either exported by the French 

armies or adopted by the oppressed peoples due to similar conditions.

These principles affected the entire socio-economic and political structures 

of Europe as can be seen below.

Positive Effects

1. Rise of revolutionary political parties

The rise of political clubs in France influenced radical reformers to organize 

similar political parties in a bid to pressurize the existing governments for 

reforms. By 1792, constitutional information clubs had been organized in 

almost every district of England and Scotland. Society of the friends of the 

people and the corresponding society were also in place. Members of 

these societies were from the lower middle class. These societies had strong 

solidarity with the French political clubs and the French national assembly.

Their operations were secret for fear of government repressive machinery.

MB. The role played by French clubs during the reign of terror made Britain 

to regard political clubs as a threat and suppressed them in order to have 

strict control over its people.

2. Chain reaction

The French revolution of 1789 acted as a springboard for revolutions in 

Europe. Subsequent revolutions like the 1830 and 1848 revolutions in Europe 

were inspired by the great French revolution of 1789. In the words of a Greek 

fighter for independence T. Colocrolos;

The French revolution and Napoleon opened the eyes of the entire world. 

Before it the people were really ignorant and thought that the kings were 

the Gods on earth. Whatever they did, people had to praise them. The 

change brought about by the French events had made it difficult now to 

rule people.

Before the French revolution, the oppressed masses of Europe and America 

could not take the law in their hands. However, they learnt from the French 

revolution that power resides in the oppressed people and that violence or 

terrorism can bring the biggest political change. This is partly why the 1820's, 

1830 and 1848 revolutions became inevitable.

3. Unification of Italy and Germany.

The French revolution laid foundation for the unifications of Italy and 

Germany; France conquered and re-organized the Italian and German 

States in 1796 and 1807 respectively. French soldiers who liberatedItalians and Germans preached the revolutionary ideas of equality, liberty, 

fraternity and nationalism. It inspired Italians and Germans with a high spirit 

of unity and independence against foreign domination. Italians for instance 

started fighting for unity and independence in 1809 against France and 

continued against Austria from 1815. This foundation combined with other 

factors to lead to the unification of Italy in 1870 and Germany in 1871.

4. Abolition of feudalism and serfdom

Feudalism and serfdom in Europe were also abolished as a result of the 

French revolution. The revolutionary ideas of equality, liberty and fraternity 

influenced the abolition of feudalism and serfdom first in France and later 

in other European States like Prussia, Hungary, Italy, Germany and Spain. 

Land was nationalized and given to peasants, which ended 

monopolization of Land by the Church and the nobles. By 1917, feudalism 

and serfdom were nowhere in Europe except in Russia. Even then, it was 

also abolished after the outbreak of the Bolshevik revolutions of 1917.

5. Abolition of social class system

The French revolution also influenced the abolition of the discriminative 

social class system that existed in Europe. The revolutionary ideas of 

equality, liberty and career open to talents influenced the oppressed 

peasants and middle class in other States to pressurize their governments to 

end social class discrimination.

This influenced hitherto (until then) conservative states like Russia, Spain and 

Prussia to abandon social class division and grant equality between the 

nobles, clergy, middle class and peasants. For instance, there were equality 

of taxation, access to education and fair trial before the law, which were 

not the case before the outbreak of the revolution.

6. Rise of new States men

There was the rise of new States men in the politics of Europe. The 

destruction of the segregative social class system and the revolutionary 

ideas of equality offered opportunity for talented men like Napoleon I in 

France, Mazzinni and Cavour in Italian States and Bismarck in German 

States to rise to positions of importance in their respective States. These 

were liberal men who fought for freedom and independence of their 

nationals/ people. However, others like Metternich took advantage of unity 

of Europe against the threats of the French revolution to dominate 

European politics after the downfall of Napoleon i.e. from 1815-18487. Rise of new forces of change i.e. Liberalism, Nationalism and Socialism.

The French revolution led to the rise of new forces of change i.e. Liberalism, 

Nationalism and Socialism in Europe. The revolutionary ideas of equality, 

liberty and fraternity undermined the old order of Europe that was 

characterized by conservatism and despotism. It opened way for a new 

political order dominated by the forces of liberalism, nationalism and 

socialism. The new forces were consolidated in Europe by Napoleon 

Bonaparte I. However, confrontation between the new forces and the old 

forces led to revolutionary movements in Europe in 1820's, 1830 and 1848. 

This was because of attempts by conservative Statesmen like Mettemich to 

suppress the new forces of change.

NB

i) The development of socialism brought antagonism and tension that led 

to the cold war in the 20th century. It was because socialism later 

dominated Eastern Europe arid "started challenging Western Europe that 

was dominated by capitalism. This divided Europe into two hostile and 

antagonistic camps that made the outbreak of cold war inevitable.

(ii) Nationalism has continuously influenced world politics up to today For 

example; it has led to the collapse of USSR and Yugoslavia. It has also been-

responsible for the decolonization of Africa and some parts of Europe like 

India that were formally under foreign rule.

8. Constitutionalism

Revolutionary ideas led to the rise of constitutionalism as a check and 

balance to despotism in Europe. Political movements sprung, up 

demanding for liberal constitutions examplifiably the Carbonari in Italy. 

Indeed, the U.N charter on Human rights (1948) has borrowed a lot from the 

declaration of the rights of man and citizens in France.

9. Diplomatic alliances / understanding

The revolution initiated the idea of diplomatic co-operation in handling 

European and world affairs. Alliances against revolutionary France that 

started from 1793 were gradually transformed into the concert of Europe 

after the defeat of Napoleon 1 at the battle of Waterloo. This inspired the 

rise and existence of subsequent international organizations like thecongress system, the League of Nations and the U.N